Chemical Properties of Silicon and its Uses

Chemical Properties of Silicon and its Uses Silicon and its Chemical Properties: Role in Architecture and Construction Introduction Silicon ranks seventh as the most abundant element in the universe and second most abundant element in earth with 27.7% composition of crust by mass (Exley, 1998). Silicon is a metalloid of atomic number 14 and chemical symbol Si discovered by Swedish chemist, Jà ¶ns Berzelius in 1823. Natural silicon contains three isotopes: 92.2% of Si-28, 4.7% of Si-29 and 3.1% of Si-30. Pure silicon exists in either shiny, crystalline dark grey or amorphous powder forms. In the period table, silicon is situated under germanium in group IV. It is usually tetravalent, though sometimes exhibits bivalent properties in compounds (Exley, 1998). Silicon exists in many dioxide forms and in natural silicates. It is present in rocks (as silicates), cement, sand, glass, silicone and ceramics (Exley, 1998). It is also a semiconductor commonly used in electronics like computers where they are formed as wafers in computer chips. Silicone is category of polymers with silicon in structure, alternating with oxygen atoms (Moretto, Schulze, Wagner, 2005). Chemical Properties of Silicon The electronic configuration of silicon is given as 1s22s22px22py22pz23s23px13py1 usually represented by [Ne] 3s23px13py1. First, second and third ionization energies are 786.3 kJ/mol, 1576.5 kJ/mol and 4354.4 kJ/mol, respectively. Ionization energy refers to quantity of energy that an isolated, gaseous atom in the ground electronic state has to absorb in order to discharge an electron, resulting in a cation. Based on its electronic configuration, silicon forms tetra-positive ions of Si+4 by loss of 3s23px13py1 electrons (Exley, 1998). Silicon bonds with hydrogen to form hydrides represented as Sià ¡Ã‚ µÃ… ¸+ Hà ¡Ã‚ µÃ… ¸- in organo-silicon chemistry. It also reacts with strong alkalis to form silicate and hydrogen gas. Si(s) + 2KOH(s) + H2O(l) -> K2SiO3 (s) + 2H2(g) Si(s) + 2NaOH(s) + H2O(l) -> Na2SiO3 (s) + 2H2(g) At 4500C silicon react with oxygen to form silicon-dioxide (silica) (Iler, 1979). Si(s) + O2(g) -> SiO2 (l) It reacts with halogens to form tetra-halides. Si(s) + 2H2(g) -> SiH4 (s) Silicon reacts with metals to form siliodes. 2Mg(s) + Si(s) -> Mg2Si(s) Silicon reacts with hydrochloric acid on heating to form hydrogen gas. Si(s) + 3HCl (aq) -> SiHCl3(s) + H2(g) Molecular silicon has the ability to stabilize positive and negative charges and the ability to affect bond strength and lengths in molecules. In organosilicon compounds, due to the relative inertness of the Si-C bond, the Si-X bond is usually much more readily cleaved. Organo-chlorosilanes, RnSiCl4-n, rapidly hydrolyse to RnSi(OH)4-n which are condensating, e.g.: 2Me3SiCl + H2O > 2Me3SiOH + HCl Me3SiOH + HCl > Me3Si-O-SiMe3 + H2O Silylation reaction is given by Me3Si-X + RO-H > RO-SiMe3 H-X, where X is Cl, Br or I. Stabilization of ÃŽ ±-silyl carbanions in organic silicon compounds occurs due to (p-ÏÆ'*)Ï€ overlap of p orbitals of carbon which is highly polarized bond of ÃŽ ± metalloid species with ÏÆ'* antibonding species near carbon-silicon bond. This is observed in 2,2-diphenyl-1-(trimethylsilyl)cyclopropane (Mark, Allcock, and West, 2005). Figure 1 Stabilization of ÃŽ ±- silylcarbanion The ÃŽ ²-effect of silicon is its ability to stabilize a ÃŽ ²-positive charge. Electronegativity of silicon puts high charge density on carbon-silicon bond that facilitates conjugative stabilization of the p orbital polarized carbon-silicon bond. In anchimeric assistance in the process of solvolysis of (bromoethyl)trimethylsilane, maximum stabilization of ÃŽ ²-positive charge occurs when there is co-planar orientation of the empty p orbital and the carbon-silicon bond (Sekiguchi, Kinjo, Ichinohe, 2004). Role of Silicon in Architecture and Construction Silicon compounds play a major role in architecture and construction. Silicon is the principal constituent of natural stone, glass, concrete, sand and cement (Ca3SiO5) used in building. Sand (SiO2) is the main component in glass (Uhlmann, Kreidl, 1991). Asbestos used in roofing is a set of silicon compounds. It is important thermal insulation. The strength of asbestos makes it useful as addition to concrete, asphalt, vinyl materials in roof shingles, pipes, siding, wall board, floor tiles, joint compounds and adhesives. It should be used with care because of its health hazards (Brodeur, 1985; Kozumbo, Kroll, Rubin, 1982; Selikoff, 1978; Wayne Crump, 2003). Common minerals present in asbestos are serpentine chrysotile ((Mg,Fe)3Si2O5(OH)4); and amphiboles tremolite (Ca2(Mg5.0-4.5Fe2+0.0-0.5)Si8O22(OH)2); actinolite (Ca2(Mg4.5-2.5Fe2+0.5-2.5)Si8O22(OH)2); cummingtonite ((Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2); grunerite (Fe2+,Mg)5Si8O22(OH)2); richeckite (Na2(Mg,Fe2+)3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2) and anthophyllite ((Mg, Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2). Silicon organic compounds like polymers (silicones) act as bonding intermediates between glass and organic compounds, form polymers with useful properties such as impermeable to water, flexible and resistance to chemical attack. Silicones are used in waterproofing treatments, moulding compounds and mould-release agents, mechanical seals, high temperature greases and waxes. Silicone sealants are used in high performance buildings due to their good performance and long lasting capabilities. It has low temperature flexibility and high temperature stability. Silicone enable amazing feats of architecture and the preservation of our most treasured landmarks – as well as making our homes more comfortable and energy efficient (Moretto, Schulze, Wagner, 2005). They can solve structural glazing and weatherproofing; energy efficiency in buildings; improve in-shop productivity and reduce material waste; extend building life and reduce life cycle costs; help realize sustainable development and achieve design freedom. Silicone sealants outperform and outlast organic weatherproofing materials. They enable innovative applications that would otherwise be impossible. For example, only structural silicone sealants have the long-term adhesion, compatibility, and strength required for structural glazing and protective glazing applications, making sheet glass skyscrapers a reality. Silicones are also inherently waterproof, and provide greater UV stability, temperature and weather resistance then organic materials. And, because they last longer, they can be replaced less often – reducing lifetime costs and contributing to sustainability. Conclusion It is concluded that silicon and its compounds have many uses in architecture and construction. More building materials with silicon as part of their structure are being developed for structural and other construction applications. Research in architecture and construction should focus on silicon and its compounds as an important frontier in developing the industry. Reference Sekiguchi, A., Kinjo, R and Ichinohe, M (2004). A stable compound containing a silicon-silicon triple bond. Science Vol. 305, No. 5691, p. 1755–7. Moretto, H-H, Schulze, M., and Wagner Gebhard (2005) Silicones in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. Kozumbo, W. J., Kroll, R. and Rubin, R. J. (1982). Assessment of the mutagenicity of phthalate esters. Environmental Health Perspectives, No. 45, p. 103–109. Mark, J. E., Allcock, H. R. and West, R. (2005). Inorganic Polymers. Oxford University. p.155. Wayne, B. D. and Crump, K. S. (2003). Final draft: technical support document for a protocol to assess asbestos-related risk. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p.474. Selikoff, Irving J. (1978). Asbestos and Disease. Elsevier. pp.20–32. Brodeur, Paul (1985). Outrageous Misconduct: The Asbestos Industry on Trial (1st ed.). Pantheon Books. Iler, R. K. (1979). The Chemistry of Silica. Plenum Press. Uhlmann, D. R. and Kreidl, N. J. ed. (1991). Optical properties of glass. Westerville, OH: American Ceramic Society. Exley, C (1998). Silicon in life: A bioinorganic solution to bioorganic essentiality. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry Vol. 69, No. 3, p. 139.

What Has Suddenly Made People Across the World Willing to Pay Three to Four Times More for a Cup of Coffee Than They Used to?

Topic: Topic Question No. 3, McDonald’s (from Week 12 case study ‘China’s Big Mac Attack’ ) and its strategic appreciation using SWOT analysis and its possible future developments -Introduction- This paper analyses possible development in McDonald’s’ future based on the strategic appreciation using SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats). Firstly, the paper briefly explains the outline of the case study. Secondly, it identifies the organisation’s current mission, objectives and strategies. Then the argument moves onto SWOT analysis. In this part, the paper analyses the environment in which McDonald’s is given, and the opportunities and threats are identified. The organisation’s resources are also analysed and it identifies strengths and weaknesses. In next chapter of the paper, it conjectures possible future strategies formulated within the organisation. Subsequently, the implementation of strategies is discussed. Lastly, the evaluation of results carried out by the organization concludes this paper. The case study entitled ‘China’s Big Mac Attack’ written by James L. Watson focuses on how McDonald’s – a leading American fast-food franchise – could accomplish to break down a barrier of Eastern Asian dietary habits and expand its franchisee territories. According to the case study, McDonald’s ought to be considered not only as an outstanding international mega-hamburger chain but also as a representative of the cultural message transmitted through Hollywood and other American culture. The author points out that even though McDonald’s franchises outside the United States are mostly operated and managed by non-American franchisees, its distinguishing double arches of McDonald’s always represent the United States of America as Stars and Stripes does. This fact shows both pros and cons, which are explained later on in this paper. In China, a rise of new middle classes and its single-child family policy accelerate the expansion of McDonald’s chain, which is also caused by a rise in the amount of money and attention lavished on children. This enormous social and cultural change is certainly a reason why McDonald’s managed to have become so prominent in China. This globalization (Westernization or in other words Americanization) has also caused new type of localization. Just as any other multinationals such as Nokia, Sony, General Motors and Starbucks, McDonald’s is no longer American company but Chinese, German, Brazilian, Indian and Japanese company. The detail is explained afterwards. It also must be noticed that McDonald’s has changed people’s behaviour in China e. g. lining up when they order or wait for meals. McDonald’s stunning strategy is not only exclusive in its franchise but also its unique management system. Hamburger University in Oak Brook, Illinois – McDonald’s world-wide management training center – is designed exclusively to instruct personnel employed by McDonald's Corporation or employed by McDonald’s Independent Franchisees in the various aspects of the business. (www. mcdonald’s. com) The author notices the importance of McDonald’s in China as a public space where local students and elderly gather and socialize. McDonald’s proudly shows its highly guaranteed food quality management. This trust also helped McDonald’s to become a dominant fast food chain in China. An imitation of brand image and products is considered to be harmful and aging population due to single-child family policy may well require McDonald’s to change its customer target segment. What’s McDonald’s’ current mission, objectives and strategies? Every organization holds its own mission, objectives and strategies – so does McDonald’s. McDonald’s was firstly founded in Illinois, the United States, in order to provide affordable meals to everyone anywhere. As the company grows, the company has continuously developed its brand image and moved its customer target segment onto children. (http://www. mcspotlight. org/media/press/index_mcds. shtml) The child-friendly atmosphere and its family-oriented space provided by McDonald’s has amazed substantial number of customers. McDonald’s greedily sought after its market overseas. According to the case study, McDonald’s today has more than 25000 outlets in 119 countries, and most of the corporation’s revenues now come from operations outside the United states, and a new restaurant opens somewhere in the world every 17 hours. Above all, it is most likely that McDonald’s current objective is to acquire the market share and pursue further establishment and standardization of its strong brand image. As strategies, recently McDonald’s rapidly expands its market share in developing countries as depicted in the case studies in China, Russia and East Europe and moreover India. It uses the image of a lighter side of American sub culture and represents a ‘gate to the world’ for customers mainly in developing countries. As to be shown in its clean toilet policy, shops are kept clean and they create a good family-friendly atmosphere. On the top of it, its strict food safe guarantee system is one of the stunning strategies of MacDonald’s. Mac’s child-friendly strategy is a key of its expansion strategy. American-style birthday parties, Ronald Room, toys and happy meals are concrete examples of the strategy. Also ‘localization’ policy must be noticed at this stage. James Cantalupo, the president of McDonald’s Corporation, remarks that his strategy is to become as much a part of local culture as possible and protests when people call McDonald’s a multinational or transnational. I like to call us multilocal,† he told The Christian Science Monitor in 1991. The another eminent strategy introduced by McDonald’s is ‘self-service’. Customers line up, self-seat and clean up by themselves. It facilitates customer rotation within shops and enables cost-saving shop keepings. SWOT analysis consists of an organisation’s strengths and weaknesses, and its e nvironmental opportunities and threats. SWOT analysis is useful to identify a strategic niche that the organization might exploit. [pic] Identifying the organization’s opportunities Firstly, the environment in which McDonald’s is given varies from place to place. Analysing the environment is a critical component of the strategy process since successful companies have a strategy that aligns well with the environment. Wherever people dwell in the world, there is always a demand for fast food restaurant. McDonald’s main consumer target, middle-classed family, is everywhere in any countries. Thinking of other competitors within the same market such as Hungry Jacks (Burger King), Jack in the Box and KFC, McDonald’s focuses more on the children as a target rather than the other age groups. This can differentiate McDonald’s from other fast food chains. The external environment seems to be best-suited to MacDonald’s. (see ‘opportunities in the environment’ in the above figure. ) Secondly, resources that McDonald’s acquires are well-known brand name, distinguishingly unique, safe and nutritious food, an abundant workforce supply due to its relatively easy manual work, and its strong franchising management system. As stated above, McDonald’s has achieved to build its powerful brand name over years and its trust, reputation and core customers are considered as precious assets of the company. The fact that anyone can open a new McDonald’s anywhere using its strong brand name facilitates its fast growth. Its original franchise management theory is also one of the resources McDonald’s owns. (see ‘organisation’s resources/abilities in the above figure. ) According to the environment and resources noticed above, the organisation’s opportunities are determined. (see ‘Organisation’s opportunities in the above figure. ) Positive American image is one of the positive external environmental factors. So is wide recognition of its brand image. But more importantly, an ease of access reasonable part-time workforce specializing manual work, the fact that it only needs limited ingredients available everywhere such as potato, chicken, etc should be remarked. Especially, in a developing country such as China, the radical social change can be an opportunity for McDonald’s. As noticed above, single-child policy and a rise of middle classes and a collapse of outdated Confucian family system resulted from rapid expansion of McDonald’s in China. On the contrary to this, there are some threats – negative external environmental factors. Being a representative of American cultural imperialism can be harmful when a strong Anti-Americanism outbreaks outside the U. S.. MacDonald’s in Mexico City, Rome, Macao, Rio de Janeiro, Prague, London, Jakarta and Beijing have been attacked and boycotted by protestors. Another environmental threat is its food safety. Mad Cow disease and Foot and Mouth disease caused a slaughter of thousands of livestock in Europe. The market has been immensely damaged including a supply chain of Mac’s ingredients. There is a big concern for franchisees of McDonald’s in China i. e. rapid aging population caused by single-child family policy. This rapid environmental change may well eventually force MacDonald’s to switchover its targeted customers to elderly people. The plagiarism of McDonald’s idea and strategies done by the competitors is also considered as a critical threat. Some fast food chains can be mighty rivals for McDonald’s if they tried to be more localized and lower the price. Strengths (activities the firm does well or resources it controls) of McDonald’s are its promotion strategy mainly focusing on children, being capable to provide the same menus, tastes and design of shops all over the world, and its strict quality control not only over food quality but also over quality of shops. A huge customer capacity and its fast rotation generate a massive amount of sales in a short time. Talking about weaknesses of McDonald’s, it is firstly pointed out that a typical image of McDonald’s is ‘junk food’. It means that the food obtained at McDonald’s is unhealthy, bad for diet, tasteless and low quality. As many can easily realize that McDonald’s cannot compete with luxurious cuisine restaurants in terms of its variety, taste, quality, nutrition and luxurious image. Those who care for health and weight may try to avoid McDonald’s due to its ‘junk food’ preconception. SWOT analysis and grand strategies Valuable strengths Critical weaknesses Abundant environmentalcritical environmental opportunities threats Now, based on the above-stated SWOT analysis, possible developments in the organisation’s future are outlined. According to the SWOT analysis, and other investigation into Mac’s activities, McDonald’s is currently implementing ‘Corporate Growth Strategies’ which is placed in the left above of the figure above. It is acquiring valuable strengths and abundant environmental opportunities. Since McDonald’s’ market share is rapidly growing, McDonald’s may well be taking corporate growth strategies until it reaches a maturity stage or moves onto a decline stage. McDonald’s is still one of the fastest growing companies and considered to be on a growth stage. The corporate strategies implemented by McDonald’s are still active and it will most likely hold current strategies in the future. By implementation of its strategies, McDonald’s will seek markets mainly in developing countries as its markets in developed countries are mostly saturated. Next possible destinations may include South-East Asia, Sub-continental region, South America and East Europe including Russia. It might firstly emphasis its American image initially then it will be eventually localized and integrated into each of the societies naturally as it is perfectly exemplified in China. -Conclusion- Consequently, the possible results, which McDonald’s will show are evaluated. This Mac type globalization is not exclusive to fast food chain. It is also observed in other industries, for example, computer and communication industries. McDonald’s is no longer small company, which is always influenced by the environment it is given but conversely, it can change and influence the environment itself. McDonald’s will continue to expand itself until people start becoming satiated with its tastes and image or a strong rival against McDonald’s emerges. But McDonald’s will probably change the strategies or its targeted customers in order to survive. Even if McDonald’s starts declining, the strategies used by McDonald’s will never be forgotten since they are one of the most prominent and effective management strategies ever to have been established. BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOK Robbins, S. , Bergman, R. , Stagg, I. , Coulter, M. , 2000. MANAGEMENT 2ND EDITION. NSW: Pearson Education Australia Pty Ltd. JORNAL Watson, J, W. , May-June 2000. ‘China’s Big Mack Attack’ Foreign Affairs. Pp. 120-134. WEB SITES http://www. mcdonalds. com/ http://www. media. mcdonalds. com/secured/index. html http://www. mcspotlight. org/media/press/index_mcds. shtml ———————– Corporate growth strategies McDonald’s Corporate stability strategies Corporate stability strategies Corporate retrenchment strategies Firm Status Environmental Status

Roles of Men and Women

Shamia Thomas Dec 9, 2010 Human Sexuality Rebecca Temple Gender Roles and Stereotypes In all societies the obvious biological difference between men and women is used as a justification for forcing them into different social roles which limit and shape their attitudes and behavior. That is to say, no society is content with the natural difference of sex, but each insists on adding to it a cultural difference of gender. The simple physical facts therefore always become associated with complex psychological qualities.It is not enough for a man to be male; he also has to appear masculine. A woman, in addition to being female, must also be feminine. For instance, men and women who feel that they do not fit the masculine and feminine stereotypes, or who resent them as too restrictive, may also develop ambiguous feelings about their biological sex. A person's gender role is composed of several elements and can be expressed through clothing, behavior, choice of work, personal relationships and other factors.These elements are not concrete and have evolved through time. In my life, I always grew up respecting others regardless of their tradition, religion, relationship status or gender. Strange as it may seem, the family roles have not changed much in today's society. Growing up,I never knew the gender roles of men and women as much. Many topics such as sexuality,martial status of gender roles and stereotypes were always a major issue in highschool. Now in this time, homeosexuality is a major issue among our young generation and older peers.Homeosexuality is is defined by the term or lebsian because sex is specific. The terms heterosexual and homosexual are rarely used in everyday speech. Many often use slang words such as gay, lebsian or straight. Generally, the terms ‘gay' and ‘lesbian' are seen as being less laden with negative implications than ‘homosexual'. The term ‘gay' is used to describe both homosexual men and lesbian women but has bec ome particularly associated with homosexual men. gression – MEN more physically aggressive, WOMEN show more guilt, empathize with victim, women can be as aggressive if feel justified or victim is anonymous, also use indirect aggression†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Talking – WOMEN use tags more often, discuss personal feelings†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nonverbal -WOMEN look more at partner when listening than talking, MEN about equal, MEN more likely to touch, WOMEN be touched, WOMEN more attune to verbal and nonverbal expressions & feelings†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   MEN – casual sex (availability), WOMEN – sex with romantic relationship (long term)†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jealousy – MEN sexual, WOMEN emotional infidelity†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Self-esteem – MEN value more unique characteristics and abilities, prefer competitive sit, WOMEN interdependence and connections with others (cooperation)†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Viewing Abilities – WOMEN evaluate self more harshly, also less likely to judge self above average than others as compared to MENGender Differences – Cognition†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   WOMEN excel in language, MEN in math, science, spatial†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   IQ tests show both MEN and WOMEN about equal in overall learning ability†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Gender differences   – many of differences are small and declining†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   May reflect sociocultural influences (environment) – math and spatial stereotypically masculine – see no difference with math in elementary school, but do at high school level, also give WOMEN practice can get as good. Often WOMEN academically successful labeled as â€Å"hard workers†, MEN as â€Å"talented† This does not mean that, in an ideal future, all human differences will disappear.Indeed, once the old stereotypes have been discarded, the differences between individuals within ea ch sex are likely to increase. Furthermore, under conditions of social equality, these individuals may also happily continue to play different gender roles. There should be no need to point out that there is nothing wrong with gender differences as such. They can greatly enrich our lives, as long as we understand that, in human beings, â€Å"different† does not have to mean superior or inferior. In other words, those who demand equal rights for men and women are not asking for drab uniformity, but for a social climate in which variety can flourish without being exploited. | | Roles of Men and Women Shamia Thomas Dec 9, 2010 Human Sexuality Rebecca Temple Gender Roles and Stereotypes In all societies the obvious biological difference between men and women is used as a justification for forcing them into different social roles which limit and shape their attitudes and behavior. That is to say, no society is content with the natural difference of sex, but each insists on adding to it a cultural difference of gender. The simple physical facts therefore always become associated with complex psychological qualities.It is not enough for a man to be male; he also has to appear masculine. A woman, in addition to being female, must also be feminine. For instance, men and women who feel that they do not fit the masculine and feminine stereotypes, or who resent them as too restrictive, may also develop ambiguous feelings about their biological sex. A person's gender role is composed of several elements and can be expressed through clothing, behavior, choice of work, personal relationships and other factors.These elements are not concrete and have evolved through time. In my life, I always grew up respecting others regardless of their tradition, religion, relationship status or gender. Strange as it may seem, the family roles have not changed much in today's society. Growing up,I never knew the gender roles of men and women as much. Many topics such as sexuality,martial status of gender roles and stereotypes were always a major issue in highschool. Now in this time, homeosexuality is a major issue among our young generation and older peers.Homeosexuality is is defined by the term or lebsian because sex is specific. The terms heterosexual and homosexual are rarely used in everyday speech. Many often use slang words such as gay, lebsian or straight. Generally, the terms ‘gay' and ‘lesbian' are seen as being less laden with negative implications than ‘homosexual'. The term ‘gay' is used to describe both homosexual men and lesbian women but has bec ome particularly associated with homosexual men. gression – MEN more physically aggressive, WOMEN show more guilt, empathize with victim, women can be as aggressive if feel justified or victim is anonymous, also use indirect aggression†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Talking – WOMEN use tags more often, discuss personal feelings†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nonverbal -WOMEN look more at partner when listening than talking, MEN about equal, MEN more likely to touch, WOMEN be touched, WOMEN more attune to verbal and nonverbal expressions & feelings†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   MEN – casual sex (availability), WOMEN – sex with romantic relationship (long term)†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jealousy – MEN sexual, WOMEN emotional infidelity†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Self-esteem – MEN value more unique characteristics and abilities, prefer competitive sit, WOMEN interdependence and connections with others (cooperation)†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Viewing Abilities – WOMEN evaluate self more harshly, also less likely to judge self above average than others as compared to MENGender Differences – Cognition†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   WOMEN excel in language, MEN in math, science, spatial†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   IQ tests show both MEN and WOMEN about equal in overall learning ability†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Gender differences   – many of differences are small and declining†¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   May reflect sociocultural influences (environment) – math and spatial stereotypically masculine – see no difference with math in elementary school, but do at high school level, also give WOMEN practice can get as good. Often WOMEN academically successful labeled as â€Å"hard workers†, MEN as â€Å"talented† This does not mean that, in an ideal future, all human differences will disappear.Indeed, once the old stereotypes have been discarded, the differences between individuals within ea ch sex are likely to increase. Furthermore, under conditions of social equality, these individuals may also happily continue to play different gender roles. There should be no need to point out that there is nothing wrong with gender differences as such. They can greatly enrich our lives, as long as we understand that, in human beings, â€Å"different† does not have to mean superior or inferior. In other words, those who demand equal rights for men and women are not asking for drab uniformity, but for a social climate in which variety can flourish without being exploited. | |

Women Rulers 1601 - 1700